Effect of Creatine Supplementation

Effect of Creatine Supplementation Abstract Introduction The use of creatine supplements as an aid to enhance performance in sports shot to prominence after it was revealed that the British Olympic team had used said nutritional supplements in the build up to the Barcelona games of 1992. The Times (7 August 1992) reported that high profile athletes such as Linford Christie and Sally Gunnell had won gold medals while using creatine during their preparation. Although sometimes viewed as controversial by sections of the sporting community, creatine as a nutritional supplement is perfectly legal and its use is encouraged by certain sporting institutions. An example of this dilemma is within the NCAA (National Collegiate Athletic Association), whereby the distribution of creatine by team coaches is banned but individual athletes are still allowed to procure the supplement themselves, although the Athletic Management journal, among others, postulates that this was done in order to level the playing field rather than as a result of a side effect discovery (NCAA clamps down on supplements, 2000: 12.5). Creatine is a naturally occurring substance found mainly in meat and fish {{2 Herda,T.J. 2009; }} that was first isolated in skeletal muscle by Michel-Eugà ¨ne Chevreul in 1832 and given its name from the derivation of the Greek word for flesh, Kreas. Twelve years later, the German scientist Justus von Liebig theorised that this compound was necessary to produce muscular action in vertebrates after observing foxes in the wild and comparing their creatine levels to those in captivity. He even went as far as to harvest his own supply of creatine from the foxes and marketed it as Fleisch Extrakt, proclaiming that it would allow the body to do more work and for over a century this was the only creatine supplement ever produced. It has been established by the scientific community that increased ingestion of creatine as a dietary supplement will lead to an increase in the total creatine (TC) and phosphocreatine (PC) concentrations in skeletal muscle {{10 Finn,J.P. 2001;11 Harris,R.C. 1992; 14 Greenhaff,P.L. 1994; }}. PC is simply the phosphorylated form of creatine that is found mainly in skeletal muscle which is utilized during high-intesity exercise to quickly replace the diminished adenosine triphosphate (ATP) stores {{2 Herda,T.J. 2009; }}. This is achieved through the actions of the enzyme creatine phosphokinase (CPK) which is found in high concentrations in muscles, allowing for swift replenishment of ATP despite the rising levels of intracellular adenosine diphosphate (ADP) that occurs during exercise {{2 Herda,T.J. 2009; }}. Ergo increasing the bodies creatine stores should result in an improved ability to regenerate the skeletal muscle fibres ATP stores and consequently lead to improved performance a nd delayed onset of fatigue during bouts of high-intensity exercise (Hargreaves, M. 2006). The aim of this paper is to review the current literature regarding creatines supposed beneficial effect on muscle performance and determine what is the optimal method of delivering the supplement to the skeletal muscle. Since creatine became fashionable in the mid 1990s, numerous sports supplement companies have been researching how it can best be administered into the body, with regards to dose size, timing and the different forms of creatine now available. Other factors need to be considered such as potential side effects and certain population groups who may be at risk when using creatine. The general consensus is that it does work as an ergogenic aid; defined by Leuthholtz and Kreider (2001) as a technique or practice that serves to increase performance capacity, the efficiency to perform work, the ability to recover from exercise, and/or the quality of training thereby promoting greater training adaptations. Another aim of this paper is to examine the mechanisms behind creatine s beneficial effects and where these improvements take place i.e. specific muscle fibre types. It is also important to consider what is meant by improvement; does it mean performance in specific exercises or just in muscle development in general? Are there particular sports events where the improvements are marked and easily noticeable? The two enzymes required for de novo (endogenous) synthesis of creatine in humans, transamidinase and methyltransferase, are found in the kidneys, pancreas and liver {{18 Balsom,P.D. 1994; }}. Therefore creatine needs to be transported via the bloodstream to the muscles where it is needed and it has been found that the normal range of creatine concentration within plasma is between 50 and 100  µmol/L {{18 Balsom,P.D. 1994; }}. To determine the total amount of creatine in the body, the levels of both the free form (FC) and phosporylated forms need to be combined. The present day analysis is that for a man of 70kg, his TC will amount to approximately 120g, with a turnover (of creatine to creatinine, the break-down product of creatine phosphate in muscle) estimated at about 1.6% per day {{19 HOBERMAN,H.D. 1948; }}. This equates to about 2g in an average male, which is replaced by both endogenous and exogenous sources, the latter coming mainly from meat and fish as mentioned earlier, w ith herring being a particularly good example {{18 Balsom,P.D. 1994; }}. In 1986, Hoogwerf et al calculated that the average creatine intake in a mixed diet was 1g per day so the remaining gram has to be made up by endogenous synthesis, while those individuals whose diet lacks creatine completely due to insufficient animal produce intake, such as vegetarians or vegans, will have to make up their daily intake entirely through endogenous means {{21 Delanghe,J. 1989; }}. In terms of distribution, skeletal muscle is home to 95% of the TC found in the body, two-thirds of which is in the phosphorylated form {{18 Balsom,P.D. 1994; }}. The remaining 5% is found mostly in the brain, heart and testes. Ageing appears to have no effect on the total amount of TC found within skeletal muscles, but levels of PC were found to be lower in untrained elderly individuals compared to their younger counterparts, while FC was found in higher concentrations in the elderly cohort {{22 Moller,P. 1982; }}. A subsequent training study by Moller and co-workers revealed that once the elderly individuals had undertaken some basic exercise, their FC and PC levels more closely resembled those of the younger group. This points to a conclusion that inactivity will result in the dephosphorylation of creatine, a process that can easily be reversed by a return to training. A 1989 study by Tesch et al showed that type II muscle fibres have higher concentrations of PC than their type I counterparts, during resting state. These findings are to be expected since the anaerobic type II fibres use PC as their major storage fuel so that ATP can be generated quickly, as opposed to the type I slow twitch fibres that primarily use triglycerides as their main source of fuel. Before exploring creatines proposed effects on muscle performance and development, it is important to consider how its ingestion actually influences the bodies stores. In 1992 Harris et al showed that ingesting 5g of creatine monohydrate resulted in the elevation of the level of creatine in plasma, one hour later, from 50-100  µmol/L to over 500  µmol/L. Unfortunately the only research conducted that has uncovered the mechanism behind creatines transport from bloodstream into muscle was done in rats {{27 Fitch,C.D. 1966; }}. It was found that the intracellular trapping of creatine and a saturable process allowed for transport of the compound from the bloodstream across to the muscle and explained the high creatine content of the skeletal muscle. Perhaps surprisingly, this is still the most we know about this particular mechanism after over 40 years and is definitely an area that is prime for future research. Creatine monohydrate versus creatine ethyl ester While creatine monohydrates (CM) use is widespread, creatine ethyl ester (CEE) is less well known in the public domain. Manufacturers of the latter claim it is more readily absorbed into the body due to being more lipophilic and therefore having a longer half-life once ingested. It is converted back into creatine once digested as it is an ethyl ester derivative of creatine, specifically developed by the University of Nebraska Medical Centres technology transfer entity, UNeMed. The claims of the various manufacturers of this specific type of creatine were disputed by a study by Child and Tallon that was presented at the International Society of Sports Nutrition 4th annual meeting. They had found that CEE was quickly broken down into creatinine due in part to the decreased acid stability caused by the addition of the ethyl group (Child Tallon 2007). The proposed beneficial benefits of the two varieties will be discussed in length later on. Effect on body mass In 1975, Ingwall et al hypothesized that creatine could stimulate both cardiac and skeletal muscle into a state of hypertrophy by myofibrillar protein synthesis. In vitro and in vivo skeletal muscle had increased synthesis of the contractile proteins actin and myosin as well as the muscle specific iso-enzyme creatine phosphokinase, all of which were due to creatines selectivity. With the increased accumulation of these myofibrillar proteins, skeletal muscle went into a state of hypertrophy. This study is considered as the initial groundbreaking research into the methods behind creatines effect and a lot of the subsequent papers mentioned in this piece reference it extensively. Ingwall followed this initial study up a year later {{16 Ingwall,J.S. 1976; }} with a paper on creatines effect as a potential chemical signal that links increased muscular activity with increased contractile mass. An important factor to note is that this paper is not referring to creatine as a dietary supplement, as its effects as an ergogenic aid were not fully understood until the early 1990s, but rather as an end product of the contraction mechanism. Its aim was to establish the biochemical and physiological mechanisms by which muscular hypertrophy occurs after increased muscular activity and measure the effects of increased intracellular creatine levels in differentiating skeletal muscle cells in culture. The conclusion was that although creatine probably does play a role in selectively controlling the rate of synthesis of muscle-specific proteins, it is hard to determine whether these results would apply in vivo. There are two schools of thought when it comes to assessing the change in body composition that comes with creatine supplementation; an increase in fat-free mass, first proposed by Earnest et al in 1996, and/or an increase in the relative water content of skeletal muscles. Francaux and Poortmans found that after nine weeks of training and creatine supplementation, their was an increase in the absolute value of both total body water (TBW) content and intracellular water (ICW) levels but not the relative value, indicating that the gain of 1-2kg of total body mass they observed was due to dry matter growth {{17 Francaux,M. 1999; }}. These results were similar to those obtained by Kreider et al in 1996 in that there was an increase in total body mass without a change in the TBW percentage {{28 Kreider,R.B. 1996; }}. When specifically studying the effects of creatine ethyl ester (CEE) supplementation, Spillane et al found no significant changes in TBW between the CEE, creatine monohydrate and placebo groups after heavy resistance training lasting 48 days {{26 Spillane,M. 2009; }}. This study paid particular interest to the supposed water retention qualities of CEE as many of the manufacturers of the supplement claim that the esterfication process it undergoes increases cells permeability to creatine and minimizes the amount of extracellular water (ECW) retained during supplementation {{26 Spillane,M. 2009; }}. As suggested by Mesa and colleagues {{80 Mesa,J.L. 2002; }}, one of the potential benefits of creatine supplementation is the accompanied increase in TBW and ICW that help facilitate skeletal muscle hypertrophy. Furthermore in 1998 Kreider et al conducted a study that used bioelectrical impedance to evaluate the changes in body composition after short term (28d) creatine supplementation during training. They concluded that the increases in body mass that they found could not be explained by disproportionate increases in total body water content and the majorit y of the increase could be attributed to lean tissue accretion {{29 Kreider,R.B. 1998; }}. Powers et al study in 2003 is perhaps the definitive work done on the subject of water retention within muscle during creatine supplementation. They concentrated solely on the fluid distribution, in a similar way to Francaux and Poortmans; by measuring total body water as well as the intra- and extracellular levels and found that although water was retained, fluid distribution remained the same {{31 Powers,M.E. 2003; }}. The theory that water retention is the main stimulus for skeletal muscle hypertrophy due to preferential retention by the intracellular component is without any evidence in the literature researched for this paper. The increase in TBW is relative to the increase in total body mass, the majority of which is formed of fat-free mass. Effect on maximal performance Maximal performance can be defined in many ways depending on the discipline; within the gym environment it is known as the 1 repetition maximum (1RM), the most weight an individual can lift in a single repetition for a given exercise. Out on the athletics track, maximal anaerobic performance can be measured with a short sprint, between 60-120m for example. Most of the studies that will be subsequently mentioned in this section have sought to discover the effects of combining creatine supplementation with various forms and intensities of resistance training. The duration of the training period also varies from one study to the next. Beck et al combined ten weeks of resistance training with supplementation of a drink that contained creatine, amino acids and protein {{6 Beck,T.W. 2007; }}. The control group drank a placebo mixture that contained just carbohydrates, and both groups were tested for their anaerobic power production before and after training. Both groups experienced improve d performances in their leg extension and bench press 1RM scores as well as their muscular endurance (number of repetitions performed at 80% of their 1RM). Also of note were increases in fat-free mass and percentage fat reduction for both groups. Most significantly however, were the changes elicited by the test drink when it came to peak power (PP) and mean power (MP) production; quantitative values that were determined using two 30 second Wingate Anaerobic Tests (WAnT). A good summary of this test is provided by -zkan et al (2010): it requires 30 seconds of pedalling at maximal speed on a cycle ergometer, against a resistance that is determined by the users body weight. As mentioned, it tests the individuals muscle power, endurance and fatigability and these were all improved in the test group but not in the placebo group. Their reasons for using a combined supplement drink was to assess whether the creatine, protein and amino acids combined effect would be greater than the benefits that would be expected from ingesting just one of the ingredients alone. It was hoped that examining the changes expected in body composition after resistance training would help to differentiate between the mechanisms that assist in supplement-induced performance enhancement. In that respect the study revealed no new information. The combination drink did improve the test subjects anaerobic capabilities compared to the carbohydrate placebo but provided no additional benefit for improving muscular strength or endurance when combined with medium term resistance training. A possible improvement to the study would have been to add in placebo groups that were to consume just protein and amino acid isolate drinks and perhaps it would have then been easier to differentiate between the respective beneficial effects of each supplem ent. It does confirm that when exercising at near maximal level, increased PC levels within the muscle can be advantageous at replenishing the ATP-PC pathway in anaerobic conditions. A near identical study by Chromiak et al in 2004 had differing results when it came to comparing the final PP and MP values of the two groups {{48 Chromiak,J.A. 2004; }}. They found that those who had taken the carbohydrate-only drink had identical results, in respect to improved PP and MP values, to those who had received the combination one. Differing levels of training intensity and volume could account for these differences, as well as the fact that the test conducted by Beck et al was evaluated using two WAnTs, as opposed to the Chromiak study , who only used one. When the results are compared to other studies that have tested similar protein, carbohydrate and creatine mixes, creatine does appear to produce the most consistent improvements in performance related activities so one can assume that the isolated increases in PP and MP are due to creatine, rather than the protein or amino acids. Open to discussion however, is the possibility that protein and amino acids could have contributed to the post-exercise recovery and tissue repair, therefore becoming a factor in the PP and MP training-induced increases. When creatine ingestion is isolated during short-term supplementation, the results of several studies appear to show encouraging results. Tarnopolsky and colleagues showed that short-term, high-dose creatine supplementation (20g a day for 4 days) markedly improved high intensity exercise performance, specifically in anaerobic cycling power and dorsi-flexor maximal voluntary contraction torque. They also found that males and females responded to the supplementation in a similar manner, with no gender effects apparent {{49 Tarnopolsky,M.A. 2000; }}. Volek et al found comparable results when they looked at maximal effort muscle contractions in individuals during repetitive sets of bench press and jump squats, after receiving 25g doses of creatine every day for a week {{50 Volek,J.S. 1997; }}. CM vs. PEG A subsequent study by Beck with Herda et al {{2 Herda,T.J. 2009; }} compared the effects of CM with that of differing doses of polyethylene glycosylated creatine (PEG), another form of CEE. Using the standard recommended safe dose of 5g a day of CM, the results after training were compared to those obtained taking 1.25g and 2.5g of PEG. Similar tests to the ones previously mentioned in other studies were used to measure muscle strength, endurance and power output in a group of young, healthy men. The difference with this study was that there was no extra training (aerobic or resistance) undertaken by any of the subjects from the level of exercise that they performed regularly before entering into this study. Instead it was just the simple administration of their respective supplement or placebo for a period of 30 days. CM had the effect of increasing body mass and muscle strength in the 1RM tests using the bench press and leg press. Those individuals taking the PEG doses found simila r improvements in muscle strength but no change in their body mass. Neither group had improved PP performance or muscle endurance when compared to the placebo group, respectively measured using the countermovement vertical jump and WAnT, and repetitions to failure at 80% of 1RM using bench press and leg press. It had been suggested by Fry et al that PEG could help facilitate creatines movement across the sarcolemma during gastrointestinal (GI) absorption, therefore a smaller dose of this form of creatine would be needed to obtain potentially the same results as CM (Fry, CF. 2007). This study showed that while a smaller dose of PEG did show comparable results to those obtained using CM, further studies are required to determine its effects when combined with resistance training. One notable practical application is that both CM and PEG groups experienced improved 1RM performance without undertaking a loading period. Many manufacturers of CM encourage a week of loading of the creatine supplement i.e. a larger dose of 20-25g followed by a maintenance period taking a normal 5g dose. Going on from this, with further research required, it might be possible to achieve the same improved performance in 1RM exercises usually seen after 5g.d-1 of CM, by taking a smaller daily dose of PEG. Again, it i s possible results may vary when combined with a set period of resistance training and further research is required in this area. CM vs. CEE, with special reference to the creatine transporter A 2009 study by Spillane et al concentrated on looking into the effects of CEE supplementation on muscle performance after a seven week period of heavy resistance training {{26 Spillane,M. 2009; }}. As mentioned briefly earlier, CEEs proposed advantage over CM is that it is more bio-available due to the esterification process it undergoes, thereby making it less hydrophilic. The manufacturers of this particular variety of creatine also claim that due to enhanced sarcolemma permeability in favour of CEE, it is able to taken up into muscle without the need for the creatine transporter (CT) {{26 Spillane,M. 2009; }}. The CT mediates the uptake of creatine in skeletal muscle against a concentration gradient and is helped by a Na+-dependent transporter {{94 Guimbal,C. 1993; }}. A review by Snow and Murphy looked at the literature concerning the CT, primarily how it is regulated and what gene expression is responsible for its activity {{51 Snow,R.J. 2001; }}. They found that the CreaT1 gen e was expressed in a variety of tissues, including neural, cardiac and skeletal muscle, and that the activity of the transporter protein itself was regulated by substrate concentration, cellular location and a host of other factors. A subsequent review in 2003 by the same authors demonstrated that the creatine content in muscle was predominantly determined by extracellular supply and the expression and activity of the CTs {{52 Snow,R.J. 2003; }}. They also found that after creatine supplementation, the increases seen in total muscle creatine levels were variable and hypothesized that potential factors responsible for these differences could be carbohydrate intake, average level of exercise and possibly fibre type. Supplement companies make specific reference to CEEs supposed benefits over CM, indicating that it is easier to absorb than other versions and offers faster results (MyProtein.co.uk web site, accessed 27-1-2010). However, these claims have been disputed, not only by the International Society of Sports Nutrition, as mentioned earlier, but also by another independent study that showed that CEE was unstable at low pH conditions and as a result, would be taken up less by muscle than an equivalent dose of CM (Mold et al 1955). The results of the comparative study by Spillane et al seemed to concur with these objections. Performance and muscle strength were improved to a similar level of those using CM and those in the placebo group, while body composition was unchanged. They concluded that the improvements seen in the study were most likely due to the training regime, rather than the supplementation and that CEE ingestion markedly increased the serum creatinine levels without any notable change in serum and total muscle creatine levels. This can only lead to the observation that the CEE was being degraded while in GI transit and its uptake by skeletal muscle was insufficient enough to prevent further degradation to creatinine or increase the levels of creatine within the muscles {{26 Spillane,M. 2009; }}. This is a very interesting revelation considering the manufacturers claims of increased absorption and it shouldnt go unnoticed that all supplementation mentioned in the study (placebo, CM and CEE) provided no additional benefit to the training specification undertaken by the volunteers. A loading phase (approx. 20g/day) of five days was followed by a maintenance period lasting 6 weeks (approx. 5g/day) and the training programme was a fairly intense one with participants required to train four times a week. Perhaps the more demanding training schedule was sufficient in providing maximal muscle strength increases and supplementation could not possibly have had any b eneficial effect. This is open to discussion however, as so far every study that has been reviewed in researching for this paper has shown that creatine increased the effects of training. Effect on repetitive sub-/supra-maximal exercise Improved performance in repetitive exercises such as repeated sprints (6x60m) are more relevant than one-off maximal performances when it comes to assessing creatines effect in a sporting environment. The ability to perform longer and harder during interval training sessions gives way to better results and hopefully better performance in competitions. It is essential to differentiate this form of exercise from endurance training, which involves long concerted efforts with little, if any, rest time. It could be said that improving this aspect of your training will give rise to improved performance in 1RM tests so the effect of creatine supplementation needs to be evaluated in both aspects. High intensity interval training (HIIT) is a specific type of interval training and is utilised by some of the studies subsequently mentioned. It requires maximal effort for a short duration of time, interspersed with active recovery at a lower intensity to the main workout. The thinking behind this form of training is that intramuscular levels of H+ will be elevated when the next set of exercise begins and this should force the body into improving intramuscular buffering capacity {{54 Costill,D.L. 1984; }}. This should then improve performance in future training/events by delaying fatigue. A 2003 study by van Loon et al looked at the effects of CM supplementation, without training, on performance during repeated supra-maximal sprints on a cycle ergometer as well as an endurance cycling exercise {{24 van Loon,L.J. 2003; }}. Whole-body and muscle oxidative capacity and substrate utilisation as well as body mass were also measured before and after to monitor any potential changes. The main aim of the researchers was to determine any differences in the results of the aforementioned values, between creatine loading and prolonged use of the supplement. Performance in the repeated sprints was improved in both groups, while there was no improvement at all in the endurance exercise. Muscle oxidative capacity was also unaffected. The researchers had based their predictions, on a possible change in the oxidative capacity, on findings by Brannon et al that showed increased muscle citrate synthase activity in rats after prolonged creatine supplementation {{53 Brannon,T.A. 1997; }}. Their results suggested improvements in the values mentioned because citrate synthase is a mitochondrial marker enzyme, although almost every study that has looked into creatines effect on endurance has found no (or even negative) effect. Unfortunately this study also came to the same conclusion. Kendall et al carried out a similar, subsequent study in 2009, looking into the effects of combining HIIT with creatine supplementation and assessing any changes in critical power or anaerobic working capacity {{3 Kendall,K.L. 2009; }}. Critical power reflects the individuals ability to sustain their highest power output for an extended period time while anaerobic working capacity is their total metabolic work capacity, independent of oxygen use {{3 Kendall,K.L. 2009; }}. Creatine significantly improved critical power compared to the placebo and control groups while anaerobic working capacity was unchanged in all test subjects after treatment. This suggests that HIITs effects on endurance performance changes may be enhanced by creatine supplementation. A possible explanation for this is that PC is a major component of biological buffering and, as has been shown already, creatine supplementation can increase the bodies total creatine stores therefore allowing for improved pre-exercise PC availability. Although the participants of this particular study did not have their intramuscular levels of PC measured, other studies have repeatedly shown a significant increase after varying levels of supplementation (3-20g/day) {{11 Harris,R.C. 1992;1 Vandenberghe,K. 1997; 55 Casey,A. 1996; }}. Therefore, not only does creatine supplementation help to replenish PC stores and increase energy production in the ATP-PC energy system, but it also serves to delay the onset of muscle fatigue by prolonging the build up of ADP and inorganic phosphate (Pi), known factors in the activation of anaerobic glycolysis (Cramer 2007). The studies covered in this paper have mostly used young, healthy males to test the effects of creatine supplementation so to ensure fair coverage of the population the next study to be considered examines the effect of the ergogenic aid in sedentary older women. Gotshalk et al (2008) showed significant increases in upper- and lower-body maximal strength in thirty 58-71 year old women after CM supplementation The effect of creatine supplementation on muscle development The aim of this section is to attempt and explain the structural changes that take place after creatine supplementation that facilitate the improvement in muscle performance shown in the aforementioned studies. It has already been shown by numerous studies that exogenous creatine can replenish the PC stores and lead to faster regeneration of ATP and therefore allow a longer and more intense exertion. This next section will focus on how creatine potentially alters the morphology of skeletal muscle and how it can amplify the effects of training. Muscle fibre type and size A study by Volek et al examined the cross-sectional area and proportion of muscle fibre types before and after supplementation and twelve weeks of heavy resistance training {{56 Volek,J.S. 1999; }}. Those subjects in the creatine group had significant increases in the cross-sectional area of all four types (Type I, IIA, IIAB IIB) while increases in the placebo group were much smaller, with only Type IIA fibres reaching a significant value of change. Interestingly it was this type of fibre that increased in proportion in both groups after training, but more so in the creatine subjects (9% vs. 7%). They also found a significant decrease in Type IIB fibres in both groups (9% and 6%) indicating that the training was responsible for a slight shift from the fast glycolytic type towards the fast oxidative type of fibres, with creatine accentuating this change. This change is to be expected as resistance training has previously been shown to decrease the percentage of Type IIB fibres and en courage the transformation from Type IIA > Type IIAB > Type IIB in as little as five workouts {{18 Balsom,P.D. 1994; }}. As the authors state in their discussion section, the greater gains in muscle fibre hypertrophy seen by the creatine group implies enhanced myofibrillar synthesis and/or reduced breakdown. Myosin heavy chain synthesis Ingwall and colleagues had shown in 1972 that skeletal muscle, formed both in vitro and in vivo, would synthesise myosin heavy chain faster when supplied with creatine in vitro {{57 Ingwall,J.S. 1972; }}. Ingwall had been one of the first to postulate that the hypertrophy of skeletal muscle as a result of increased muscular activity might be due to an end product of the activity promoting contractile protein synthesis {{57 Ingwall,J.S. 1972; }}. The results of his early experiment were consistent with the idea that creatine acts as a positive-feedback effector within the system relating muscular activity and muscle protein synthesis. However it is still unclear whether the same mechanism is applicable in vivo as creatines beneficial effects appear to act indirectly through the enhancement of the intensity of trai

Lives Of Saints: Christinas Strength In Resisting Societys Demands :: essays research papers

Lives of Saints: Christina's Strength In Resisting Society's Demands As you grow older it is inevitable that you will change in many ways. As a matter of fact it is impossible to survive without the ability to adapt to situations and surroundings. This ability is acquired as you age, learn and experience life. It is a part of growing up and society demands that you adapt and conform to their mores and customs. It is always difficult to veer from the path of uniformity which society leads. Many times you are able to slip by unnoticed with a minor variance from this path. However, when someone decides to blatantly blaze their own trail, often society makes their further growth and development a difficult task. As a result the community only tolerates acquiescence and conformity. Like the character Cristina in Nino Ricci's novel Lives of the Saints, it is only the most tenacious that can resist caving in to the pressure. Often, this deviance can harm others, not just the dissident. Vittorio is continually badgered for the deeds his mother performed, and he is too innocent to realize that, her independence of spirit is the reason. As well, Cristina's father does not see past the cloud which has slowly been built up in Valle del Sole. The cloud which prevents most people from seeing how the failure to be an individual rules the town, and how anyone with the nerve to be unique is ostracized. Cristina's father's failure to understand this leads to the decline and eventually their total destruction of the family structure. In many ways, the story of the character Cristina in the novel is similar to the story of Saint Christina. They both endure considerable suffering for standing up for their beliefs. In both cases they have whole villages opposing them, and neither of them give in, thus proving how strong they are. In the end, Santa Christina and Cristina end up leaving behind these villages for a better existence. The villagers continuous attention to whatever Cristina does, prevents her from living her life as she would like. Cristina's only choice is to keep to herself and go about the tedious and repetitive housework she does day in and day out. This prevents any advance in her development and growth, she is left like a skipping record playing the same thing over and over, not making any Lives Of Saints: Christinas Strength In Resisting Societys Demands :: essays research papers Lives of Saints: Christina's Strength In Resisting Society's Demands As you grow older it is inevitable that you will change in many ways. As a matter of fact it is impossible to survive without the ability to adapt to situations and surroundings. This ability is acquired as you age, learn and experience life. It is a part of growing up and society demands that you adapt and conform to their mores and customs. It is always difficult to veer from the path of uniformity which society leads. Many times you are able to slip by unnoticed with a minor variance from this path. However, when someone decides to blatantly blaze their own trail, often society makes their further growth and development a difficult task. As a result the community only tolerates acquiescence and conformity. Like the character Cristina in Nino Ricci's novel Lives of the Saints, it is only the most tenacious that can resist caving in to the pressure. Often, this deviance can harm others, not just the dissident. Vittorio is continually badgered for the deeds his mother performed, and he is too innocent to realize that, her independence of spirit is the reason. As well, Cristina's father does not see past the cloud which has slowly been built up in Valle del Sole. The cloud which prevents most people from seeing how the failure to be an individual rules the town, and how anyone with the nerve to be unique is ostracized. Cristina's father's failure to understand this leads to the decline and eventually their total destruction of the family structure. In many ways, the story of the character Cristina in the novel is similar to the story of Saint Christina. They both endure considerable suffering for standing up for their beliefs. In both cases they have whole villages opposing them, and neither of them give in, thus proving how strong they are. In the end, Santa Christina and Cristina end up leaving behind these villages for a better existence. The villagers continuous attention to whatever Cristina does, prevents her from living her life as she would like. Cristina's only choice is to keep to herself and go about the tedious and repetitive housework she does day in and day out. This prevents any advance in her development and growth, she is left like a skipping record playing the same thing over and over, not making any

Aerobic Exercises act as Brain Boosters

Many newspapers, magazines and online articles have in the past reported research findings done by other people. For those people who may not be critiques, the information found from these media avenues may be complete sources of information, but for those that are interested in verifying any given information, then studying the original research will be very vital. This is because the research reports in media may not provide finer details of methodology or other cautionary statements that have been made by the researchers.This term paper makes a critical analysis of Peter Jaret’s article on the CNN’s website entitled â€Å"Brain boosters: Exercising your mind as you age. † Research: Aerobic Fitness Reduces Brain Tissue Loss in Aging Humans The research entitled â€Å"Aerobic Fitness Reduces Brain Tissue Loss in Aging Humans† was conducted to examine the relationship between aerobic fitness and brain tissues in an old adult population (Colcombe ET al, 200 3). The research was important in that the brain starts losing tissues as one gets older which in turn makes the cognitive performance to decline.This can enable measures that can reduce costs related to geriatric care put in place. This may be done by coming up with mechanisms that can be used to reverse or reduce this brain deterioration. The research was also done to either confirm or refute the previous researches that suggested that aerobic fitness training does improve the cognitive function of old people and that it can improve the brain health of aging animals tested in the laboratory (Colcombe ET al, 2003).The targeted population was made up of older adults in the community who were over fifty five years, were right handed, high functioning, and had been recruited for public fliers, campus wide e-mailings and newspaper advertisements (Colcombe ET al, 2003). Those who were excluded were those that were below the stated age, got less than twenty in Mini-Mental State Examinati on and had a history of organic brain dysfunction and stroke. Also the participants were excluded if the reported claustrophobia or had pacemakers or metallic implants, this was done for safety reasons pertaining to magnetic resonance imaging setting.The respondents were also to get written approval letters from their doctors so that they can undergo the cardiovascular stress test. The research was approved by the University of Illinois’ Institutional Review Board in addition to the researchers meeting ethical standards that were relevant (Colcombe ET al, 2003). The first part of the research methodology was to measure the gray and white matters of the brain from the Magnetic Resolution (high density) images and then the estimates of the maximal oxygen uptake (V O2max).The brain images were taken using three dimensional spoiled gradient sequences on a General Electric scanner. The Rockport 1-mile walk protocol was used to assess the participant’s cardiovascular fitness . The impact of cardiovascular fitness on brain tissue differences in density that are age related was accessed using a voxel-based morphometric technique. The technique is useful in that it provides a means of estimating tissue atrophy in the entire brain with spatial resolution that is high which then allows conclusions of the variables on brain matter change (Colcombe ET al, 2003).Before analysis was done the images were taken through different preprocessing stages. First the tissues that are non brain were removed from the image of the head of the participants. The other three images were divided into three maps to represent the density of the white matter, the grey matter and the cerebrospinal fluid. All the images were then examined by experts who did not have prior information of the participants’ fitness so that they could be objective in their calibration (Colcombe ET al, 2003).Though sixty individuals had expressed their interest to participate in the study, fifty f ive were eligible to complete both faces due to the fact that three were younger; one person had an implanted pacemaker, eight had claustrophobia and one scored less MMSE score. The participants were aged between fifty five and seventy nine years meaning that the age mean score was 66. 5 years. Generally the sample was 44. 4 percent men; many being well educated (average 16. 1 years in education). The results showed that the white matters of the brains were being lost as one continued aging.Also, those regions that are mostly affected by aging are the ones that showed the greatest advantages of aerobic fitness. Fitness according to the results plays the role of moderating decline in tissue density that is related to age. The results showed that tissue densities in the parietal, frontal and temporal cortices of the brain reduce as the aging process progresses. Also it was found that the losses were reduced by the cardiovascular fitness function even when other variables were controll ed (Colcombe ET al, 2003).The research was very important as it was a confirmation that there is a relationship between cardiovascular fitness and the degeneration the fact that had previously been hypothesized. There was also the confirmation that cardiovascular fitness protection and enhancement of the cognitive function in the older adults has a biological basis. This is a justification of the other studies that had shown that taking antioxidant supplements could reverse aging in older brains; cognitive training could assist in the preservation of brain function.The research report also suggest that there are aerobic exercises’ benefits that go beyond health markers (cardiovascular) which can even affect the brain (Colcombe ET al, 2003). Synopsis of the article In the CNN’s article online that is entitled â€Å"Brain boosters: Exercising your mind as you age,† there are some research issues that the author, Peter Jaret has handled. He states that the research ers have established that physical and mental activities protect one’s memory and helping him or her stay alert (Jaret, 1999).He also refers to the previous researches stating that the speed of brain processing does slow down as one continues to advance in years and also that between the age of twenty five and fifty five people can loose about twenty five percent of their synapses (connections which relay messages between neurons). Also that the older people experience problems in coming up with either numbers or names; this being because memory takes more time in retrieving the data.He also mentions Robert Dustman’s article in 1990 that states that those people who are aerobically fit are better in staying alert and pay attention or even in remembrance of information. He quotes the director of Gerontology at the University of Texas who states that two physical factors are the ones that predicts the performance (on tests of information processing) of a person. The auth or gives the reason why aerobic fitness affects the brain precisely because exercises allow blood vessels to remain open and the heart to remain strong, thus allowing the brain to function properly since the nutrients can reach the brain cells.He states that neurons that make two percent of the total body weight use about one quarter of the oxygen and glucose intake by the body. Exercises also allow parts of the balance and movement that keep the connections of the neurons strong (Jaret, 1999). Jaret (1999) also mentions the researches that found out that mental gymnastics are useful in the preservation of brain power. He cites the research by Meyer who recorded his research findings in the Journal of the American Geriatric Society in 1990 stating that blood flow for those who have allowed their minds to be inactive declines.The author mentions the 1998 issue of Neuroscience where the researchers found that brain cells can reproduce; the study that was done using rats. He also menti ons Robert Goldman’s suggestions on the ways one can develop brain connections that are underused. First, one can play games that require thinking, memorize poetry and verses, reading articles and books that are challenging and finally engage in practices that are regarded as complex or difficult (Jaret, 1999).Critique of the Article Studying the article, it is clear that the author had done enough research before he decided to submit it for publishing. This is because many of the research findings that he mentions are either preceded or followed by their authors or the sources from where the information had been gotten. Information about the speed of brain’s processing slowing with the advancement of age had already been proved in the researches by Colcombe ET al.Other claims that the author has made and that are verified by the findings of this research include the percentage of the synapses that are lost as age progresses, between the age of twenty five and fifty fi ve and that exercises keeps the blood flowing to the brain cells facts that are also mentioned in the British Journal of Sports Medicine. When he states that mental gymnastics can preserve brain power he aggress with the research done by Marks Et al (2007) entitled â€Å"Role of aerobic fitness and aging on cerebral white matter integrate. †Despite the researched facts that the writer of the article has given, there are details that he has not given the readers perhaps because of the space limit allowed in the media publications. The methodology used by the researchers has not been indicated and other important details such as research designs, data collection methods, and the variables. This makes the readers unable to get the final details of the researches. This however does not at any form mislead the reader as the author was careful to cite the sources of the information that he has written.Conclusion In conclusion, it is clear that Peter Jaret article was well written, citing the sources from where the information has been retrieved. However, the article could have been made more informative by giving finer details of the original researches that were conducted. REFERENCES Colcombe, J. et al (2003). Aerobic fitness reduces brain tissue loss in aging humans. The Journal of Gerontology Series: Biological Sciences and Medical Sciences, 58:M176- M-180. — (2003). Aerobic exercise training increases brain volume in aging humans. The Journalof Gerontology Series A: Biological Sciences and Medical Sciences, 61:1166-1170. Erickson, K. , Kramer, A. (2008). Aerobic exercise effects on cognitive and neural plasticity in older Adults. British Journal of Sports Medicine, 43:22-24. doi:10. 1136/bjsm. 2008. 052498 Jaret, P. (1999). Brain boosters: Exercising your mind as you age. Retrieved March 12, 2009, from http://archives. cnn. com/1999/HEALTH/aging/12/15/brain. boosters. two. wmd/index. html Marks, B. Et al. (2007). Role of aerobic fitness and aging o n cerebral white Matter Integrity. New York: New York Academy of Scienc

Essay on Decay Theory in STM and Theory of Duration in STM

Decay Theory in STM and Theory of Duration in STM The theory suggests STM can only hold information for between 15 and 30 seconds unless it is rehearsed Brown Peterson (1959). After this time the information Decays (fades away). Waugh Norman (1965) used the Serial Probe Technique to test the theory. Participants were given a series of numbers to learn. They were then given one of the numbers and asked which number followed it. For example; participants were given the Probe word 7 and asked what followed it, the answer is 3. The numbers were presented at different speeds therefore the faster the numbers presented the better the recall if Trace Decay theory is correct as the more likely†¦show more content†¦Godden Baddeley (1975) provided evidence for this by asking participants to learn a list of words either on land or 15 ft underwater. They were better able to recall words if asked to do so in the setting in which they originally learnt them. 2. Secondly, State-Dependent Retrieval suggests that recall is improved if the individual is in the same physical and/or psychological state as when they first learnt the information. Godwin (1969) investigated the effect of alcohol on recall and found individuals were better able to recall information learnt when drunk if they were drunk. Other drugs seem to affect memory similarly. Bower (1981) however found that the same principle applied to mood did not have such a convincing effect but only a tendency to produce State-Dependent Retrieval.SPANSTYLE=COLOR:RED 3. Thirdly, recall may be by the presence of cues or probes, clues or associations. This is referred to as Cue-Dependent Retrieval, Tulving Pearlstone (1966). Interference in LTM This idea suggests that information in LTM may become confused or combined with other information during encoding thus distorting or disrupting memories. Interference in LTM is thought to be either proactive where old memories disrupt new memories or retroactive where new memories disrupt old memories. Both Proactive andShow MoreRelatedEssay Py4 Explanations of Forgetting1975 Words   |  8 Pagesmemory (STM) or long term memory (LTM) it can be due to a lack of availability or accessibility. A lack of availability is where information is not present in STM due to decay and displacement, and a lack of accessibility is in the LTM due to cue dependency and interference. Forgetting occurs in the STM as it has a limited duration and capacity; once these limits are reached, information is forgotten. If information is forgotten from STM therefore it is unavailable, however LTM’s duration and capacityRead MoreEssay about Evaluation of Two Models Of Memory1413 Words   |  6 Pagesinformation. It is an exact copy of the stimulus, although it lasts for a very short time. The experiment done by Sperling in 1960, where he showed a quick image to the participants and asked them to write the answers down, supports the theory of existence of the Sensory memory store, as participants could only remember 36% of the image on average. According to the model, if attention is paid to an external stimulus, an internal thought, or both, then it is stored in the Read MoreThe Multi Store Model And The Working Memory Model1278 Words   |  6 Pagesmemory(STM) and long term memory(LTM). This model explains how each store works in terms of encoding, duration and capacity. The SM obtains the information from environmental stimuli through our five senses which are touch,sight,smell,taste and sound. In SM the encoding is either visual,auditory or haptic; duration is  ¼ to  ½ seconds and the capacity is all sensory experience(McLeod S.A,2007). Attention is essential for the information to transfer to the STM, otherwise it is lost through decay. TheRead MoreModels Of Theories Of Memory1235 Words   |  5 PagesEvaluate two models of theories of memory. This essay will evaluate two models of theories of memory. Memory can be defined as the persistence of learning over time via the encoding, storage, and retrieval of information. Encoding is the process of categorizing incoming information through conscious effortful processing, rehearsal, or unconscious automatic processing. The storage process involves the retention of encoded information over time. Lastly, retrieval is the process of getting informationRead MoreShort-Term and Long-Term Memory Loss1129 Words   |  5 Pagesforgetting in both short-term and long-term memory such as overlap, decay, distractions, repression, and amnesia. In addition to this, several psychologists have developed some distinct explanations for forgetting in short-term and long-term memory. 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It is advisable, in this case, to write the number down. Duration and capacity are factors that enhance or impede the flow of information in short term memory. The things one gives attention to then go to the third and final stage, which is long-term memory (LTM). â€Å"Once in LTM, the duration and capacity are unlimited. For instance, the memory and sounds of the first Homecoming Halftime from middle school are still freshRead MoreCompare and Contrast the Information Processing Approach, the Parallel Distributed Processing Model, the Levels of Processing Model, and the Traditional Three-Stage Memory Model.623 Words   |  3 PagesThree-stage Memory Model- states memory requires three different storage boxes or stages to hold and process information for various lengths of time. All three state that memory goes through stages or processes. 2. Describe the purpose, duration, and capacity of each of the three distinct storage systems in the traditional view of memory. Sensory memory holds sensory information;  ½ sec for visual, 2-4 sec for auditory: large capacity Short term memory retains perception for analysis; upRead MoreThe Effect Of Pictorial Condition And Verbal Condition Essay2387 Words   |  10 PagesThere are many types of memory including the two main types, short- term memory (STM) and long- term memory (LTM). Short-term memory is having the ability to process and remember information for a short period of time. (Mastin, L. 2016). There are three main aspects to STM including limited capacity, limited duration and encoding. Limited capacity is the ability to hold 7 items or less in your brain. Limited duration is when the information processed in your brain can be lost very easily. FinallyRead MoreMemory Span Capacity2583 Words   |  11 PagesAbstract The memory span experiment tested the theory that there is a short term memory system that is limited in capacity and is influenced by different processes. The memory span experiment included different stimuli, which were numeric, letters that sound different, and letters that sound the same. 10 undergraduate students recalled stimuli in the same order that was presented to them. It is hypothesized that short term memory is a limited capacity system that is influenced by verbal

Data Protection and Theft - Free Essay Example

Sample details Pages: 4 Words: 1122 Downloads: 8 Date added: 2017/06/26 Category Information Systems Essay Type Narrative essay Did you like this example? DATA PROTECTION AND THEFT Forms of Data in Law Firms The (Indian) Information Technology Act, 2000 (hereinafter referred to as the Act) deals with the issues relating to payment of compensation (Civil) and punishment (Criminal) in case of wrongful disclosure and misuse of personal data and violation of contractual terms in respect of personal data. Data is defined under Section 2(o) of the information Technology Act, 2000 as: à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã…“data means a representation of information, knowledge, facts, concepts or instructions which are being prepared or have been prepared in a formalised manner, and is intended to be processed, is being processed or has been processed in a computer system or computer network, and may be in any form (including computer printouts magnetic or optical storage media, punched cards, punched tapes) or stored internally in the memory of the computer; à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã…“ Law firms have an immense pool of critical and private data and its usage in any other manner, other than the instruction of the clie nt raises an ethical and legal question. In order to obtain legal advice a client often confide with the law firm with embarrassing details, classified information, future plans. Therefore it is of utmost importance that such data be protected. Additionally, it is to be noted that the obligations of law firms to protect confidential data begins only after the creation of a relationship of an attorney and client.[1] Furthermore, The Indian Evidence Act, 1872 under sections 126 to 129 deals with the privileged communication that is attached to professional communication between a legal adviser and the client. It prohibits attorneys from disclosing any communications exchanged with the client and stating the contents or conditions of documents in possession of the legal advisor in course of and for the latters employment with the client. The responsibility which is carried by the attorney while discussing with the client, is also to be maintained within a law firm which engages t he services of various attorneys. Don’t waste time! Our writers will create an original "Data Protection and Theft" essay for you Create order Effect and obstacles to data theft The electronic nature of data leaves a gaping hole for exploitation and therefore theft largely goes unnoticed until the revelation by the perpetrators of such theft. Further the effect of data theft in a law firm shall result in concealing such a fact from the client and the public in general to avoid any embarrassment, reputational damage and reduced client confidence for inability to take any action to curtail such theft. Section 72A of the Act provides that disclosure of information, knowingly and intentionally, without the consent of the person concerned and in breach of the lawful contract has been also made punishable with imprisonment for a term extending to three years and fine extending to INR 5,00,000 (Approx. US$ 10750). Further Section 72 of the Act provides for penalty for breach of confidentiality and privacy. The Section provides that any person who, in pursuance of any of the powers conferred under the Act, Rules or Regulations made thereunder, has secured access t o any electronic record, book, register, correspondence, information, document or other material without the consent of the person concerned, discloses such material to any other person, shall be punishable with imprisonment for a term which may extend to two years, or with fine which may extend to INR 100,000, or with both. Method of data protection Many of the vulnerabilities that exist in protection of data from theft exists due to the inadequacies present in the computer system administrators. Further, even if such loopholes are adequately covered by the programmers and administrators, the trust, freedom to work, enjoyed by the employees and advocates working with a law firm enable them to exploit such a position to their own advantage. Further by virtue of Section 43A of the Act, any body corporate including a firm may be held responsible for leak of sensitive information or data in case it is negligent in implementing and maintaining a reasonable security standards and procedure. Further in case any wrongful loss is caused in consequence of such leak, the firm shall be responsible to pay compensation as well as damages to such a person affected. In order to curb such misuse of data usage various firms employ various tactics. Titus Co., a law firm based out of New Delhi, does not allow temporary employees, or interns to c arry any mobile devices into their office premises. Reasonable security practices and procedures is defined under Explanation (ii) of Section 43A of the Act as security practices and procedures designed to protect such information from unauthorised access, damage, use, modification, disclosure or impairment as may be specified in an agreement between the parties or as may be specified in any law for the time. Moreover the Government of India in conference of the powers granted under Section 87 read with Section 43A of the Act, framed the Information Technology (Reasonable security practices and procedures and sensitive personal data or information) Rules, 2011 (hereinafter referred to as the Rules). Rule 3 of the Rules defines sensitive personal data or information as any information involving the financial information, passwords, physical, psychological condition, sexual orientation, biometric information or any clause of a contract. Further, Rule 4 and 5 of the Rules prescri bes that sensitive data and information held by a body corporate or any person on its behalf, then a privacy policy for handling of or dealing in personal information including sensitive personal data or information shall be prepared by the body corporate and it shall ensure that the same is available for view by such providers of information who has provided such information under lawful contract. Additionally, Rule 4 of the Rules states that disclosure of any personal data or information requires the prior permission of the provider of the information. It is pertinent to note that the Ministry of Communication and Information Technology, vide Press note dated 24.11.2011 has clarified that the Rules were applicable on law firms.[2] Moreover, the Bar Council of India, the statutory authority which regulates and represents the Indian bar mandates that an advocate shall not breach the obligations imposed upon him/her under Section 126 of the Indian Evidence Act. [3] Conclusion Undoubtedly, the concept of data theft and protection is at a nascent stage in India. Whoever there are reasons for jubilation with the Data Privacy Protection Bill, 2013 pending in the parliament. Further the framers of the Rules have attempted to adopt ideas from jurisdictions which have long standing and mature data protection regulations. These Rules are only therefore a first step. Moreover, stringent implementation of the law and healthy development of the data privacy and protection jurisprudence in the long run is what one needs to watch out for. [1] Kalikumar Pal v. RajkumarPal 1931 (58) Cal 1379, Para 5 [2] Ministry of Communication and Information technology, Press Note No. 11-7/2010-S-I(Pt. 1) [3] Bar Council of India Rules, Part VI, Chapter II, Section II, Rule 17.

Avatar and Imperialism - 686 Words

The movie Avatar shares many themes with the Age of Imperialism. In the movie, the human protagonist takes the form of a local alien Navi in a conflict between humans and the Navi. The conflict arises because the humans in the film have arrived at the home of the Navi, Pandora, and begun to exploit its resources. At first, they ignored the Navi, but their quest for resources is now taking them into direct conflict with the native peoples of Pandora. The Navi are the only humanoid residents of Pandora, which is otherwise populated by abundant flora and fauna. In the imperialism parable, the Navi are the native peoples of Africa, the Americas, Australia and Asia; while the humans in Avatar are representative of the Europeans during the Age of Imperialism. During the Age of Imperialism, Europeans spread across the globe, setting up colonies and exploiting the resources of the lands that they found. When they began to set up colonial rule in those lands, there was tremendous suffering among the native peoples. Many native peoples during the Age of Imperialism lost their way of life to the imperialist powers. In Avatar, the loss of a way of life, and in broad the loss of culture altogether, is a theme explored in when the humans seek to destroy the Hometree as part of their plan to exploit the resources of the planet. The loss of the way of life for the Omaticaya people mirrors the dramatic changes to the way of life that can be found in the Age of Imperialism. NativeShow MoreRelatedDepiction of Imperialism in Avatar715 Words   |  3 PagesGeography (2009) defines imperialism as an unequal human and territorial relationship, usually in the form of an empire, based on ideas of superiority and practices of dominance, and involving the extension of authority and control of one state or people over another (p. 373). 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As they arrived, they met a society for whom they displayed little compassion and much hostility.  Ã‚  The British invaded their land and oppressed the Native American people for hundreds of years due to their cultural differences

Employee Engagement for Personal Relationship- myassignmenthelp

Question: Discuss about theEmployee Engagement for Personal Relationship. Answer: Employee engagement, its components and dimensions: Employee engagement is about creating opportunities for employees where they are motivated to engage with organization on wider platform. It is dynamic and complex process that reflects each personal relationship and uniqueness of individual with their work. Factors that influence engagement of employees in organizations are considered common. Employee engagement can be defined as the combination of organization values and its commitment and their willingness to help out their employees (Allen et al. 2013). It is not simply about motivating employees and providing them with job satisfaction, it is something that goes beyond all these. Employee engagement does nor form a part of employee contract as it is something that is offered by employer or organization. Over the recent years, importance of engagement of employees have been recognized by employers. There has been improvement in enablers of engagement of employees that has driven employee engagement in organizations. Engaging mana gers, strategic narrative, integrity and employee voice are the four enablers of organization that has been highly influential in engaging employees (Armstrong and Taylor 2014). Researchers have been able to ascertain that organizational success is related to engagement of employees. There are three dimensions of employee engagement and it comprise of emotional engagement, physical engagement and cognitive engagement. Emotional engagement is about workers being emotionally involved in their work. Physical engagement is about willingness of workers to go to extra miles for the benefit and prosperity of their employers. Cognitive engagement is about workers focusing very hard on their work. Identifying the dimension of employee engagement has led to arriving of another definition (Singh 2013). In this regard, employee engagement is defined as a unique and emotional construct and a fulfilling, positive state of mind at workplace. Components of employee engagement involves involvement in decision making, freedom enables to perform well, freedom of voicing ideas that can be listened by managers, feeling that organization is concerned about well-being and health of employees. Another component of employee engagement is clarification in what teams and individual are trying to achieve at work. It is considered crucial in respect of management intellectual aspects. Engagement of employees is comprise of two groups as per Hay group that is discretionary efforts and commitment. Discretionary effort is employees willingness to go above formal requirements of jobs. Commitment is about intention and effective attachment of employees to remain in job. All the components of employee engagement is associated with role performance of individual employees. Difference between employee engagement, organizational commitment, job satisfaction and employer involvement: Organizational commitment is the degree to which employees recognize and identify themselves within organization. There are different type of commitments in organization that is continuance commitment and affective commitment. Affective commitment is about emotional attachment of employees to organization. Continuance commitment is about attachment of employees toward organization because they will have to bear the cost of they leave. Commitment is about loyalty of employees towards the organization whereas engagement of employee with organization is about taking discretionary efforts and going beyond job formal requirement and thereby contributing to overall success of organization. Job satisfaction is about the satisfaction of employees while they are in their job and employees can be satisfied with their job whilst not getting engaged with job or with organization. Employee engagement is a broader concept compared to job satisfaction and former deals with organization as a whole and later deals with individual employees. Engaging employees intends to increase and enhance productivity of employees, on other hand, job satisfaction does not leads to enhanced productivity. Factors driving engagement of employees in organization is different from factors that drives satisfaction of job at work (Whetzel and Wheaton 2016). Employees that are genuinely engaged with organization tends to have higher productivity, motivated employees, innovation, quality and high degree of customer satisfaction. Satisfaction of jobs can be regarded as one the part of engaged employees. Employer involvement is about demanding of involving workers in their decision making process of manag ement, changing initiatives and driving employees for making continuous improvement. Employer are involved in organization when the necessity arrives in case of demotivated workers (Biniari et al. 2017). This is done basically to affect working environment and encourage employees to participate in several decisions. Need for alignment between engagement practices and some corporate components: One of increasingly significant dimension of human resource practices in organization is employee engagement. Alignment of corporate components such as decision making, motivation of employees and satisfaction of customers and practice of engagement will help in achieving sustainable high performance on organization. Employee engagement is vital function of organization and its alignment with objective and aims of organization would provide other business benefits and has a positive influence on productivity. Importance of aligning human resource practice and business is dominant provided human resource strategy is influenced by business strategy. Alignment of corporate component and engagement practices helps in encouraging organizations to adopt engagement approaches. Need of alignment arises as it helps in creating connection between execution and strategy (Xanthopoulou et al. 2013). Employees are able to make sound judgment about work practices. An organization experiencing highe r cost of turnover has the need of aligning their employees as it help in maintaining strong financing performance of organization Employee engagement principal drivers: An organization can have many driver of employee engagement and in this regard, communication, leadership and work life balances are regarded as main drivers. One of the strongest driver of employee engagement in organization is a sense being involved and feeling valued. It is required by organizations to make implementation of each driver by careful consideration work life balances and potential burnout of employees. There are different combination of factors influencing different group of employees and it is consider for organizations to evaluate the factors that are essential for organization. Organizations will have engaged workforce and using this drivers will help in motivating them to achieve better performance of organization. Employees are the key components of any organization and providing them with better work life balance will help them to engage with organization on wider platform (Nel et al. 2014). Some of key drivers of employee engagement are listed below: Employees will be motivated to engage on higher platform with employees if they have feeling of being well informed about what is going on and happening in organization. Employees that are provided with opportunities so that they are capable of feeding their views in upward direction helps them in performing beyond the formal requirements of job. Employees having the perception that their manager and management is committed to organization will drive them to engage with organization to achieve desired objectives. Another driver to engagement can be considered is the flexibility in work schedule (Snell et al. 2015). Growth and welfare of employees, interpersonal relationships and employee empowerment are some of specific key drivers of engaging employees to any particular organization. Achievement of these driver places on importance and relevance of internal communication. The possibilities of employees engaging with their respective organizations is more when they are provided with safe and conducive working environment (Beardwell and Thompson 2014). Moreover, an organization having strong and motivating leaders will have their employees motivated and encouraged to get engaged with organization. Benefits of engaged workforce: Managers, employees, customer and organization as a whole are provided with several benefits of an engaged workforce. Benefits of employee engagement to employees- Engagement of employees are associated with flexible working patterns and engaged employees see their work as more meaningful and fulfilling. Engagement idea encompasses the pluralism concept and practical philosophy of management (Saks 2017). The important focus of employee engagement is employment relationship that is at the heart of high performance sustainability. It identifies the need of making genuine contribution on part of both employer and employees. Benefits of employee engagement to customers- Engaged employees helps in creating engaged and satisfied customers and it is generally perceived that customers who are satisfied are loyal to the organization. Engaged customers is connected to organization emotionally and they are capable of enjoying a consistent experiences among processes, products and employees (Camargo et al. 2015). Connection between customer engagement and employees engagement is enhanced if the employees are attached genuinely with the organization. Engaged customers are more than satisfied customers. There is a marked link between satisfaction of customers and engagement of employees. Customers having positive experiences due to support provided by employee engagement are more likely to recommend their business to others. Benefits of employee engagement to managers- Effectiveness of line managers can be enhanced by engaging employees in organization. Performance appraisal of managers can be enhanced by incorporation employee engagement into the process (Burton et al. 2017). Performance of managers can be improved by analyzing the engagement scores of employees. High score would depict managers efficiency and low score would indicate low efficiency of managers in creating sustained workforce. Benefits of employee engagement to organization- An organization is able to derive better outcomes of business if it has engaged employees and thereby enhancing their performance. Organizations will experience increased profit margin, growth in their revenue and total return it generates to shareholders due to increased employees engagement. Steps taken by organization for creating employee engagement culture: For enhancing employee engagement, an organization is required to create a culture that will help in motivating employees to do. There are many outcomes of having increased employee engagement such as employee retention, customer loyalty, and productivity of employee and self-efficacy of managers. In light of all the positive outcomes, it is of utmost importance to have an encouraging environment for engaging employees on wider platform. The tone for employee engagement can be set by workplace culture and their engagement can be well predicted by if a culture is created where employees are feel respected and motivated. It is done so that employees are willing to put discretionary efforts in quests of success (Gerken et al. 2016). Some measure that can be taken by organization for to create a culture of increased workers engagement are as follows: Discretionary behavior- Engagement level of employees is associated with discretionary efforts. An organization in an attempt to foster discretionary behavior to create an environment of employee engagement needs to identify some drivers. It involves individual consideration, autonomy and individual, equity and fairness, trust, self-sacrificial leadership and identification with team. Making effective use of positive enforcement will help organization in earning discretionary efforts. Employees providing discretionary efforts on sustainable basis helps in engaging employees. The indicator of willingness of employees to expend discretionary efforts is engagement of employees (Mone and London 2014). Effectiveness of organization is increased by way of employees discretionary behaviors. Job design- Job design is the process where range of tasks, responsibilities and duties are put together so that a composite of individuals is created so that work is undertaken by them while regarding as their own. Employee engagement is significantly impacted by job designs. Job design is said to have positive relationship between employee engagement and characteristics of job. Organizations are capable of motivating their employees by job design as it makes them comfortable in performing jobs and empower them to be a part of organization. It generates several outcomes that is beneficial to organization are managerial effectiveness, employee innovativeness and employees commitment (Budhwar and Debrah 2013). This will make them experiencing an increased level of employee engagement. Role autonomy- Autonomy of employees is considered as critical factor for employee engagement. Role autonomy is one of the drivers of employee engagement and it is related with trust and independence of staffs who all are at work. It deals with employees ability to control their work situation and they positively impacts individual and organization as a whole. When employees are provided with more discretion at their workplace, this leads to increase motivation, morale and thereby engagement of employees. Evaluation of diagnostic tools for measuring employee engagement and attitude: Creation of an accurate measure of employee engagement will help in establishing link between achieving primary objectives of business and different level of engagements. Attitude survey is an important diagnostic tool for measuring attitude of employees. 17 item Utrecht work engagement scale is a psychological measure of measuring employee engagement. Engagement and burnout of employees under this scale is measured independently using different scales. Dedication, vigor and absorption characterizes that engagement is work related, positive and fulfilling. Constituent element of engagement is absorption. One of the effective tools for development of organization can be conducting attitude survey. The measurement of engagement level of employees is done using three dimensions of multidimensional attitude. It involves advocacy, motivation and involvement. Advocacy is a belief by employees that organization is a good service provider as well as good employer. Employees regard organization as suitable to recommend to others. It can be done by conducting survey and asking individual employees. Motivation is about psychological attachment and enthusiasm of employees regarding job activities. Involvement is about feeling of employees that they are provided with the opportunities to make improvement and suggest to organization for their improved performance. Organization can measure all these dimension by conducting survey or interview within the organization and this will assist in depicting level of employee engagement and their attitude. Diagnostic tools that can be used by organization to measure employee engagement are employee engagement index. Measurement of engagement is done by asking employees to which they agree to the items that is involved in employee engagement index. Some of the items that is used in employee engagement index are achievement, alignment, commitment, advocacy, pride and discretionary efforts. This particular index involves dimensions and factors of experience of employees. Factors that are essential for improving economic, environmental and social performance are determined in this index (Keating and Heslin 2015). Strategies for raising level of engagement: The level of employee engagement in an organization can be raised by developing value propositions of employees, framing structure of organization, taking steps of overcoming barriers and resistance to employee engagement. Engagement is considered as productivity drivers and practice of employer should be influenced by government. This will help in supporting increased employee engagement. Overcoming resistance to employee engagement- Resistance or barriers to employee engagement in organization can be addressed by creating a common ground and understanding of engagement. Organization should try to identify the measures and steps that will enhance employee engagement and where they are lacking. Sometimes, barriers to employee engagement is faced by organization because of the communication style. Communication channel can be improved by redesigning and arrangement for dealing with several opinions of employees should be done (Brewster et al. 2016). Employee value proposition- Employee engagement in organization can be encouraged by developing and facilitating two way dialogue between management and employees. Organizations should take steps to create a genuine consultative environment for raising level of employee engagement. Engagement strategies of organization should incorporate creation of partnership between trade unions and management that would provide support of union in increasing employee engagement. A positive physiological contract between employer and employees can be created by developing vigorous employee value proposition. It has been ascertained that organizations having and making effective use of employee value proposition helps in creating workforce that are highly engaged. It is considered as one of the best tools that is available to organizations for engaging employees (Cross et al. 2017). Therefore, organization should develop the strategies of effectively using their employee value propositions that wil l help in creating engaged workforce. Creating structure facilitating employee engagement- The ingredient to make or increase level of employee engagement is leadership quality of managers in organization. At all level of business, leadership is considered to be more accountable for driving engagement from top to bottom of management. An organization can increase and build an engaged workforce by leadership development. This might call for change in structure of organization and strategies should be focused on building capability of leadership and thereby driving workers engagement (Hansen et al. 2014). In this regard, it is crucial to develop communication strategies. Organization forms facilitating promotion and participation by employees- An organization can experience large engaged workforce if they are able to successfully motivate and encourage their employees and make them feel of sense of being valued. Satisfaction of employees greatly impacts in increasing increased engagement level of employees and measures should be taken to communicate the way of rewarding the employees (Aswathappa 2013). Framing communication strategies for increasing level of employee engagement- For framing strategies of communication, it is required by organization to have a communication plan in place. Engagement of employees in organization can be enhanced by constructing a plan of communication. One of the critical factors for increasing employment engagement in an organization is communication and trust (Slack et al. 2015). It is recommended for organization to have communication plan comprising of six steps and effective strategies of communication forms the basis of communication plan. Assessing current internal strategy of communication- The first step is to evaluate the current strategy used by organization for engaging employees. If strategy is not competitive enough to motivate employees to engage them, it is important to reframe strategies accordingly. Identification of metrics required for tracking and measuring engagement level- Analysis of strategy for success should be another step to developed communication. Evaluation of actual performance of strategy calls for developing metrics. It can involves employees engagement metrics such as their involvement in decision making, productivity and absenteeism. If the metrics is not suitable and does not give proper results, there can be reformulation of strategies. 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